The heart and soul of Christianity was the sacrifice of Jesus Christ for the redemption of sin. In Christian thinking, this was the ultimate act of self-sacrifice, punctuated dramatically by Jesus wishing not to have to go through with it in the gospels, for example:
“Father, if You are willing, remove this cup from Me; yet not My will, but Yours be done.” (Lk 22:42, NASB)
Early in Christian history, the idea that Christians ought to follow Christ’s lead and die for their faith became important. Early stories about the apostles suggested that all but John had died for their faith, or in other words, were martyred. By the time of the apostolic fathers (i.e. the presumed followers of the apostles themselves), stories of martyrdom of Christians were common.
This was not entirely without reason. For example, we have correspondence from the early 2nd century between the Younger Pliny, governor of Bithynia (a Roman province in northwestern Anatolia or modern Turkey). Some “subversive” people, known as Christians, were pointed out to him. He feared that since they did not make obeisance to the Roman state religion, their defiance might spread. So he executed those among them who most persisted (not all of them, but we don’t know just how many). He then wrote to Emperor Trajan about the matter and asked for a policy by which these Christians should be treated.
Now ... at the time, and afterward, the Younger Pliny’s treatment was taken as the start of an official Empire-wide anti-Christian policy. This was not entirely the case, however, for Trajan’s response ordered a more moderate approach. Christians were not to be actively sought out and anonymous denunciations were not to be accepted. Only those Christians who made themselves apparent and who also refused to honor the state gods, would be punished, and not all with execution. Note that this policy fairly reflected long-standing Roman tradition toward anyone who did not honor the Roman state religion, so one cannot say that Christians were treated any worse, at this time, than any other anti-orthodox groups.
Perhaps a decade before the Younger Pliny dealt with Christians in his province, the Roman aristocrat Tacitus mentioned in his Annals that Emperor Nero, in 64 CE, blamed “Christians” for a fire and persecuted them. The trouble is that we don’t know with any certainty how many Christians were in Rome at that time; and this persecution was limited to Rome itself — so it wasn’t extensive. We also have no idea how well-known this persecution was among early Christians. The later, abortive “persecution” of the Younger Pliny was better-known (having taken place in the eastern Empire, where the majority of early Christians lived).
I devoted a page to St Ignatius because of his effect on martyrdom theology. The adversary in his martyrdom was Emperor Trajan, the same emperor with whom the Younger Pliny had corresponded and who advocated a moderate approach. Subsequent Christianity developed a “high tradition” about him which went past what was said of him during his own time and the decades after. In it, Trajan becomes much more of a villain, as do the Roman guards who escorted Ignatius to Rome for trial and execution. Trajan’s response to the Younger Pliny makes the “high tradition” about his relations with Ignatius extremely unlikely.
Despite its ahistorical nature, it is this distorted “high tradition” of St Ignatius which finally took hold in early Christianity. From his example, and those of other presumably-martyred apostolic fathers, it was often presumed that anyone martyred for Christ was automatically a saint — brought to heaven to be with God for eternity. Even today, in the Roman Catholic Church which has an extensive, lengthy, bureaucratically-tangled process for deciding who is a saint and who isn’t, being martyred cuts through a lot of the red tape. All by himself, the Pope can declare any martyr to be “beatified,” which is but one step short of being sainted. For many Christians even today, there is no higher expression of piety and sanctity, than to be martyred for Jesus.
While the persecution of Nero, localized to Rome, is rather shadowy, and the Younger Pliny’s suppression of them appears to have been extremely limited, other, better-attested persecutions took place. Most of these were ad hoc affairs not ordered or sanctioned by Rome; for instance, in 177 CE mobs in Lyons attacked Christians and local authorities imprisoned them. A new local governor persecuted them, but soon after, it appears this ended (probably because that governor was ousted over this policy).
Under Emperor Decius a more official Empire-wide persecution began. It lasted from 250 to 251, the end of his reign. Even then, his persecution was limited only to areas where he had authority; his reign was turbulent and his time taken up with military campaigns in the east. About that time a plague raged through the western and central Empire (called the Antonine Plague). Despite the end of Decian official persecution of Christians, popular persecutions (such as the Mob of Lyons) sporadically occurred.
The most significant systemic persecution of Christians, and the one which had the greatest effect on Christendom as a whole, was that of Diocletian. It is this persecution which was seen as the most important by later Christians, and it was taken (erroneously) to have been similar to prior persecutions. Diocletian’s policy included roaming interrogators who sought out Christians actively (a total departure from the older policy of Trajan). A particular target were anyone with sacred Christian books; since it was clergy who were most likely to have them, they bore the brunt of this persecution. Diocletian’s reign had dealt with military problems, plagues and famines, and economic collapse especially in the west. Looking for a scapegoat, he found it first in Manichaeans (who were persecuted beginning in 301) and then in Christians (beginning in 303).
Diocletian’s persecution was devastating, and affected the clergy the most. In some places, while some lay Christians were unaffected, their clergy were all imprisoned, exiled, or executed, leaving no one to perform the sacraments. Subsequent Christians mark the beginning of Diocletian’s reign, 284, as the beginning of a martyrdom-era, even though the persecution didn’t start until 19 years later.
They exaggerated this persecution in other ways, as well; for example, a story dating to the early Middle Ages claims that Diocletian had killed some 20,000 Christians in the city of Nicomedia, on December 25, 303, by setting ablaze a church in which they were having a Christmas service. This story is almost certainly untrue, and not only because no fully-enclosed building in Nicomedia then could have held anywhere near 20,000 people; but because eastern Christians of the time did not celebrate Christmas (on December 25 or any other day). While Diocletian certainly persecuted Christians, the historical record is obviously overstated and distorted; it was nowhere near as severe as later Christians have claimed.
The official persecutions of Diocletian only lasted about 2 years, with his death; his successors Licinius and Constantine had different ideas about Christians and did not continue his policy. Eventually Constantine would declare tolerance for Christianity in the Edict of Milan (313), ending the persecution forever.
As noted, persecution of Christians by Rome certainly occurred, its extent has been grossly overstated by subsequent Christian tradition. First, many Christians believe that the entire history of Christianity, up to the Edict of Milan, was one in which Christianity was officially persecuted, in which Roman officials actively hunted them down at all times and that admitting to being a Christian amounted to a death sentence. This is not true. Official persecutions actually lasted only c. 6 years total, put together. Ad hoc persecutions were more frequent, but also much more sporadic, and limited in scope.
Later historians, studying the evidence, have determined that the persecution was meager compared with subsequent Christian tradition. For instance, Edward Gibbon, in his seminal The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, states that the total number of Christians executed from 30 CE to the Edict of Milan, was about 2,000.
Despite the overstated persecution, Christians have been inspired to view martyrdom as a Christian ideal. The works of St Ignatius were widely disseminated, and added to and modified. Other Christian writers spoke of the virtues of martyrdom. In some cases they had to write also condemning suicide as a path to martyrdom. Furthermore, the emotionally-compelling nature of martyrdom led to the Donatist controversy which rent the northern African church apart.
Once freed of the threat of the Roman state, Christians quickly turned on each other. The early General Councils declared what dogma was “orthodox” and what wasn’t, and the guns of the Church turned to those considered “heretical.” Among the justifications for Christians going after Christians, were warnings against false teachers as found in Acts, the epistles of John, and in Jesus’ letters to the Asian churches at the beginning of Revelation. Warnings of false teachers were to be taken seriously.
Most of the time heretics were ostracized, but mobs sometimes gathered to drive them out, loot and burn their homes, etc. Later, military campaigns were conducted against heretics. An example are the Paulicians, a Gnostic sect which had survived mostly unnoticed for centuries in Anatolia; they went so far as to form a pseudo-state at Tephrike. Byzantine emperor Basil I the Macedonian defeated them in battle and dispersed them, in 872. Some took refuge in Armenia further east. A century later, emperor John I Tzimiskes deported them to the Balkans, where they integrated with the Bulgars; he had rather expected them to be wiped out by attacking Bulgars instead.
In medieval western Europe, Latin Christendom developed something of a heretical police-force; the now-infamous Inquisitions, which took off as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). The Lateran councils also led to the Albigensian Crusade in which papal forces actually marched to war against heretics. Papal and conciliar policies justified Christians persecuting other Christians, and some of them, in turn, looked forward to being martyred (perhaps most famously during the Hussite Wars (1420-1434).
Christianity in some parts of the world is being persecuted. Perhaps the best-known example of this is in China, where all religions are persecuted, even domestic religions such as Falun Gong. In the occidental world, however, Christianity is the majority religion and is no longer in any danger. The old sentiment of being “persecuted” lingers, even where no persecution exists. This is because Christianity, over the centuries, has perpetuated a feeling of being downtrodden. As Jesus had been rejected by the upper-classes of his day, and by the people of his own putative hometown, Christians feel they are in the same boat. Many Christians simply cannot help but identify with Jesus emotionally and see themselves as persecuted, whether or not they actually are.
This leads them to imagine all sorts of odd and fantastic things, such as that Christianity is in danger of being abolished in the U.S. Books such as Persecution by David Limbaugh and The War on Christmas by John Gibson are big-sellers among Christians, because they play right into their sentiment of being on the verge of having the religion wiped out. They confuse efforts to keep religion out of politics and vice-versa, as not merely a desire to keep things in their own place, but as actual efforts to abolish Christianity utterly. Yes, this is irrational, but it’s how many Christians feel. And they want (desperately) to feel threatened for the sake of Christ, since — as centuries of Christian tradition have taught them — suffering for the sake Christ is a sure road to spiritual superiority; and acceptance of it, is a sign of piety.
Their trouble is that no effort to abolish Christianity exists, anywhere in the occidental world. If Christians simply kept their persecution complex to themselves, it would be fine; but they impose it on the world around them, and accuse others of doing things they haven’t even done. And since they feel “targeted,” they expect everyone else to feel sorry for them. But the lack of any reality behind their persecution-sentiment makes for a great deal of trouble, especially in politics. Many Christians desperately wish to reconstruct the U.S. government and create laws upholding Christian dogma; this is a pre-emptive strike, if you will, against the day when those evil atheists and secular humanists destroy their religion.
Is this rational? No. Is it happening? Yes. Is it inexcusable? Sure. But will it end? Never.
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