Christianity itself began as a movement (or rather, a collection of them) within Judaism. They largely didn’t remain Jewish-only, and began embracing Gentiles, in short order. This is evident, for example, within Paul’s Cilician Christ-cult in places such as Galatia, by the middle of the 40s CE.
Despite this trend, through the classical era there were several Christian sects that remained Jewish-only. None were especially large, but other Christian sects were aware of them, as were traditional Jewish communities.
In general, the known Jewish Christian movements that we know of, were not attested prior to the 2nd century. These movements may very well have existed in the 1st century, but if so, they still weren’t noticed and identified until much later.
These groups tended to live at the margins of Greco-Roman society. Christians viewed them as “heretical” Christians; other Jews considered them wayward Jews; and everyone else viewed them as Jews; as a result of the Roman-Jewish wars, they were often regarded with suspicion at best and hatred at worst.
As with other realms of Christianity (e.g. Gnostic Christianity, “literalist” Christianity) there were a number of different Jewish Christian sects. It’s not only possible, but likely, that we don’t know about all of them. Also, while some Jewish Christian sects are named by others, those names were often fungible labels. Especially since these groups were as marginal as they were, and often quite small, there may well be some confusion among them.
I will discuss a couple of the more notable Jewish Christian sects.
The Ebionites were an early Jewish Christian sect. How early they emerged as a distinct sect, is a matter of some debate. The name of their sect is mentioned by Justin Martyr around 140 CE, and they may have been the group he referred to.
Another similar group with the same name is mentioned by Irenaeus about 180 CE, and they’re more clearly spoken of by Tertullian around the end of the 2nd century. They may have descended from a group of Jewish Christians who, during the Second Roman-Jewish War (115-177 CE), refused to accept Bar Kochba as a messiah and were persecuted for it.
The name of this sect derives from Hebrew ebyonim (in transliteration) which means “poor ones.” They embraced poverty, which explains this name. It may have been the feature of their sect which separated them from others like theirs. The Ebionites also fervently upheld Mosaic Law, and Gentile converts had to adopt the Law (which meant that males had to be circumcised).
This adherence to the Law has caused scholars to speculate they may have started as a cadre of Essene Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah as well as his teachings, but otherwise continued living as they had, strictly living according to Mosaic Law and embracing the same asceticism as the Essenes.
In addition to keeping the Law and embracing poverty, Ebionites appear to have been vegetarians, opposed animal sacrifices (likely because the Temple no longer existed), and held their sacred communal meal annually, on or around Passover, rather than holding weekly or biweekly eucharistic services.
They also believed that both Jesus and John the Baptist had also been vegetarians. This is in spite of the fact that John is explicitly described in the gospels as having lived on locusts and wild honey (Mt 3:4). They further believed Jesus’ mission had been to abolish the practice of animal sacrifices entirely rather than becoming, himself, a substitutive sacrifice for humanity.
They rejected the virgin birth and were adoptionists, viewing Jesus as a man who, through his righteous adherence to the Law, had earned God’s favor and was thus the Messiah.
The term “Nazarenes” (or sometimes “Nazoreans”) can be a little ambiguous. It’s used very early to speak of all Christians (since they were followers of Jesus of Nazareth). Both Tertullian and Eusebius mention it used this way.
A later heresy-hunter, Epiphanius, mentions a more specific sect of Jewish Christians by this name. He also described the Ebionites at more length. St Jerome also spoke of both of these groups.
These two sects were very similar to one another, which is noted by later writers who were aware of them. The main difference appears to be that the Nazarenes believed in the Virgin Birth which the Ebionites rejected.
There are suggestions by some writers who mentioned them that these two sects might have split apart at some point in the past. The nature of the rift is not really clear. The chief doctrinal point that divided them is the Virgin Birth, so one would assume it was related to that. However, these groups may have separated from another reason, and later, each either accepted or rejected the Virgin Birth.
The Nazarenes are mentioned much later, during the Middle Ages, but it’s unclear if the groups identified by that name have any relation to this Jewish Christian sect. The term also was applied to other faith communities, such as a particular group of Mandaeans.
There are variant names for this sect (Elcesaites, Elkesaites or Elchasaites) but all of these relate to the same faith group. They are frequently referred to as a Jewish Gnostic sect, however, their relation with Gnosticism wasn’t evident early in their history. They did have some mystical beliefs, but at least initially, they were not particularly Gnostic.
This particular movement had more in common with other types of apocalyptic Judaism, than with anything else, up to about the turn of the 2nd century. At this point they had a further reach than ever and appear to have opened up somewhat, acquiring some belief in Jesus of Nazareth and also permitting Gentiles entry.
They were baptists as well, but a bit more obsessed with that rite than many other Jewish and/or Christian sects. They came to believe that two baptisms were needed for salvation; one in youth and another later in adulthood. They also viewed baptism as a proper manner for treating various conditions, ranging from dog bites to demonic possession.
Despite having reported followers as far west as Rome, Elkasaites remained mostly in the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). They also represented the “odd group out” with regard to the rest of the Abrahamic religious tradition, not having very much to do with Christianity despite including Jesus among their teachings and generally holding to Mosaic Law. They viewed themselves as successors to John the Baptist rather than Jesus.
Perhaps the most famous Elkasaite was someone who ended up rejecting that sect and establishing a religion of his own: Mani, who in the early 3rd century founded Manichaeism. It appears this sect lost quite some number to that nascent religion.
The Elkasaites endured for some time, at least in name. They’re mentioned by Epiphanius, and Eusebius, and even by Arab authors as late as the 8th century.
Jewish Christian sects don’t appear to have been large, and concerted campaigns against them by “literalist” Christians weren’t common. However, once the Roman Empire granted Christianity tolerance, and that faith began its relentless pursuit of “heretics,” they certainly were the victims of harassment.
They had a reputation for keeping to themselves, which was likely a defense mechanism, but it also set them apart from others and triggered no small amount of resentment.
Their belief in Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah doesn’t appear to have been enough to protect these sects. Over time, they dwindled, sorting themselves either back into “mainstream” Judaism or “mainstream” Christianity.
Their fate was no better in places that were conquered by Muslims. They were accepted as followers of a “religion of the Book,” but like pretty much everyone, they were pressured into embracing Islam.
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